The mining and metallurgy industry has undergone a profound transformation since 1905, when Canada was producing six key metals – iron, copper, nickel, lead, aluminum and zinc – largely for domestic use.
By the 1950s and 1960s, Canada had become a global leader, topping world nickel production, ranking second in aluminum, third in gold and fifth in mined copper. The following five decades of expansion from 1960 to 2011 have been described by the Canadian Institute of Mining (CIM) as a “Golden Age” for the sector.
Today marks another pivotal period for mining and metallurgy in Canada as the geopolitical and economic order shifts. A growing pipeline of projects offers the potential to strengthen domestic capacity and build new supply chains, but a list of projects is only a start. Can the country now recapture the Golden Age or will we hesitate?
The CIM identified five characteristics that were critical to the success of the Golden Age. While a sustainable mining industry begins with good deposits, these broader factors helped define Canada’s position at the time. Each can be assessed in today’s context.
The Golden Age was characterized by an industry largely in Canadian hands, effectively managing their own destiny. Today, that is only partly the case. Many of the larger mines, surface plants, smelters and refineries are under foreign ownership, and a number of metallurgical facilities have closed over time, including operations in Timmins, Ont., and Belledune, N.B.
At the same time, a shift is underway. Many new projects are now being advanced by Canadian juniors rather than majors, a reversal of the model seen in the 1960s. Whether this will rebuild domestic capacity remains to be seen, but it points to a different industry structure going forward.
The decline in processing capacity is notable. In the 1960s and 1970s, Canada had seven copper and copper-nickel (Cu-Ni) smelters:
Today, only three smelters remain, including two nickel-copper operations, and one primary copper smelter at Rouyn-Noranda. There is one copper smelter – Glencore’s Horne – a troubled plant with a future that remains uncertain.
Where nearly all copper concentrates were once processed domestically, about 60% are now shipped abroad for smelting and refining. Rebuilding this capacity is increasingly viewed as a strategic imperative, both to reduce reliance on other jurisdictions and to support higher-value employment. Potential locations for new processing capacity could include Long Harbour in Newfoundland, the St. Lawrence region in Quebec and sites in British Columbia.
At the same time, Canada’s output of mined copper and nickel has declined over the past decade, reflecting both lower production at existing mines and a lack of new operations. Natural Resources Canada data show 132 producing mines in 2023, compared with more than 200 in the early 1960s.
As production falls, there is a risk that technical knowledge and expertise will erode. This has already been seen in lithium, where earlier production and processing capabilities were lost following mine closures in the 1960s, though some of that capacity is now being rebuilt.
Research and development were central to the Golden Age. At the first Conference of Metallurgists in 1962, Dr. John Convey emphasized the importance of innovation, stating that “unless we are concerned with research, the country will falter.”
Industry leaders at the time shared that view. Companies such as International Nickel, Cominco and Sherritt Gordon invested heavily in research, not only in production but also in developing markets and improving products.
As one Canadian Mining Journal assessment in 1959 noted, the industry’s growth depended on sustained “research and development in the field of sales and uses as well as production” and the ability to adapt to changing conditions.
Several companies that once ran their own R&D departments have since closed or repurposed them. They included Inco (now Vale (NYSE: VALE)), Noranda (now Glencore (LSE: GLEN)), Falconbridge (now Glencore), Sherritt International (TSX: S; US-OTC: SHERF), Teck Resources (TSX: TECK.A, TECK.B; NYSE: TECK), Alcan (now Rio Tinto (NYSE, LSE, ASX: RIO)), Barrick Mining (TSX: ABX; NYSE: B) and Cameco (TSX: CCO; NYSE: CCJ).
Instead, research is more dispersed across universities, government laboratories, smaller firms and specialized facilities such as Kingston Process Metallurgy in Ontario. While many of these institutions produce high-quality work, the system appears more fragmented and less coordinated.
The Canada Centre for Mineral and Energy Technology, known as Canmet and once a central pillar of federal research as part of Natural Resources Canada, now has insufficient capacity for Canada’s needs.
During the Golden Age, Canada’s mining and metallurgical industry was supported by a strong network of universities and technical colleges across the country, including leading programs at institutions such as Dalhousie, Laval, McGill, École Polytechnique, Queen’s, McMaster, and the universities of Toronto, Alberta and British Columbia.
Today, while the industry continues to benefit from high-quality academic programs, the number of institutions offering specialized training appears smaller, and enrolment levels are lower. At the same time, funding for research programs varies and appears insufficient to meet future needs.
Labour shortages are emerging as a concern, particularly as demand for skilled workers grows alongside new project development. Ensuring a steady pipeline of trained professionals will be critical to sustaining the industry.
Government policy has generally supported mining and metallurgy, though its form has evolved over time. Early interventions focused on labour protections and the acceptance of unions, while later decades introduced environmental regulations that reshaped project development.
Today, most of the necessary policy frameworks are in place, but the emphasis has shifted toward enabling project development through permitting reform, infrastructure investment and support for critical minerals. The building blocks exist, but their effectiveness will depend on how they are applied in practice.
Since its founding in 1898, CIM has played a central role in supporting the industry. Events such as the Conference of Metallurgists, first held in 1962, provide forums for the exchange of technical knowledge.
It facilitates collaboration across the sector while also bringing international perspectives to Canadian audiences. CIM remains important as the industry navigates new technical and strategic challenges.
Looking back over the Golden Age, it is clear that Canada retains many of the building blocks needed to expand its metals output. However, gaps remain that could affect the country’s competitiveness and its ability to attract investment.
There is a looming labour shortage that will require renewed attention to training and education. Research and development activity will need to increase to address more complex deposits and evolving processing requirements, with support from both industry and government. At the same time, policy tools such as price floors or contracts for difference for certain metals could be considered to improve project economics and reduce risk.
Canada’s earlier success was not solely a function of geology, but of coordinated effort across industry, government and academia. Recreating that success will depend on whether those elements can once again be aligned to support a new period of growth.
Phillip Mackey, a member of the Canadian Mining Hall of Fame, advanced the development of not one but two significant copper smelting technologies.
March 11, 2026
March 11, 2026
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